Blackness in Britain Beyond the Black Atlantic Arts and Humanities Research Council

Interdisciplinary academic field focusing on the peoples of the African diaspora and Africa

Black studies, or Africana studies (with nationally specific terms, such as African American studies and Blackness Canadian studies), is an interdisciplinary academic field that primarily focuses on the study of the history, civilization, and politics of the peoples of the African diaspora and Africa. The field includes scholars of African American, Afro-Canadian, Afro-Caribbean, Afro-Latino, Afro-European, Afro-Asian, African Australian, and African literature, history, politics, and organized religion likewise as those from disciplines, such equally folklore, anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, education, and many other disciplines within the humanities and social sciences. The field too uses various types of research methods.^[1]

Intensive academic efforts to reconstruct African-American history began in the late 19th century (West. East. B. DuBois, The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America, 1896). Among the pioneers in the first half of the 20th century were Carter Thousand. Woodson,^[2] Herbert Aptheker, Melville Herskovits, and Lorenzo Dow Turner.^{[3] [4]}

Programs and departments of Blackness studies in the U.s. were first created in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of inter-ethnic student and faculty activism at many universities, sparked past a five-month strike for Black studies at San Francisco State. In February 1968, San Francisco State hired sociologist, Nathan Hare, to coordinate the first Black studies program and write a proposal for the first Section of Black Studies; the department was created in September 1968 and gained official status at the end of the 5-months strike in the leap of 1969. The creation of programs and departments in Black studies was a common demand of protests and sit-ins by minority students and their allies, who felt that their cultures and interests were underserved by the traditional academic structures.^{[ citation needed ]}

Black studies departments, programs, and courses were also created in the United Kingdom,^{[5] [6]} the Caribbean area,^[vii] Brazil,^[8] Canada,^[9] Colombia,^{[ten] [11]} Ecuador,^[12] and Venezuela.^[13]

Names of the academic discipline [edit]

The academic discipline is known by various names.^[24] Mazama (2009) expounds:

In the appendix to their recently published Handbook of Blackness Studies, Asante and Karenga annotation that "the naming of the subject" remains "unsettled" (Asante & Karenga, 2006, p. 421). This remark came as a upshot of an extensive survey of existing Black Studies programs, which led to the editors identifying a multiplicity of names for the subject field: Africana Studies, African and African Diaspora Studies, African/Blackness Globe Studies, Pan-African Studies, Africology, African and New Globe Studies, African Studies–Major, Black World Studies, Latin American Studies, Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Black and Hispanic Studies, Africana and Latin American Studies, African and African-American Studies, Black and Hispanic Studies, African American Studies, Afro-American Studies, African American Education Program, Afro-Ethnic Studies, American Ethnic Studies, American Studies–African-American Emphasis, Black Studies, Comparative American Cultures, Ethnic Studies Programs, Race and Ethnic Studies.^[25]

Okafor (2014) clarifies:

What appears to drive these distinctive names is a combination of factors: the composite expertise of their faculty, their faculty'south areas of specialization, and the worldviews of the faculty that brand up each unit. Past worldview, I am referring to the question of whether the constituent faculty in a given setting manifests any or a combination of the following visions of our project:

• a domestic vision of black studies that sees it as focusing exclusively on the affairs of only United States African Americans who descended from the generation of enslaved Africans
• a diasporic vision of black studies that is inclusive of the diplomacy of all of African descendants in the New World—that is, the Americas: North America, South America and the Caribbean area
• a globalistic vision of the black studies—that is, a viewpoint that thinks in terms of an African globe—a world encompassing African-origin communities that are scattered beyond the world and the continent of Africa itself.^[26]

History [edit]

Caribbean area [edit]

Amid English-speaking countries of the Caribbean area, scholars educated in the United States and Britain added considerably to the development of Black studies.^[7] Scholars, such equally Fitzroy Baptiste, Richard Goodridge, Elsa Goveia, Allister Hinds, Rupert Lewis, Bernard Marshall, James Millette, and Alvin Thompson, added to the development of Black studies at the University of the West Indies campuses in Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad.^[7]

Key America [edit]

Costa Rica [edit]

The Executive branch created a law to found a Committee for Afro-Costa Rican Studies, as one, amid other laws, to increase the level of inclusion of Afro-Costa Ricans in Costa rica.^[27]

Honduras [edit]

Due to a history of deficient resources and anti-black racism, Afro-Hondurans have largely been excluded from academic publications about Honduras; consequently, Afro-Honduran studies has remained limited in its formal development.^[28]

Europe [edit]

Britain [edit]

Following the rise and reject of Black British Cultural Studies between the early 1980s and late 1990s, Black studies in the U.s.a. reinvigorated Black Critical Thought in the United Kingdom.^[29] Kehinde Andrews, who initiated the development of the Black Studies Association in the Uk as well as the development of a grade in Black studies at Birmingham City University,^[29] continues to advocate for the advancement of the presence of Black studies in the United Kingdom.^{[5] [6]}

N America [edit]

Canada [edit]

In 1991, the national chair for Black Canadian Studies, which was named subsequently James Robinson Johnston, was created at Dalhousie University for the purpose of advancing the development and presence of Black studies in Canada.^[9] Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin was studied by the Blackness Canadian Studies chairman, John Barnstead.^[ix]

Mexico [edit]

Through development of the publication, The black population in Mexico (1946), Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán made fashion for the evolution of Afro-Mexican studies.^[30]

United States [edit]

A specific aim and objective of this interdisciplinary field of study is to help students broaden their knowledge of the worldwide homo experience by presenting an attribute of that experience—the Black Experience—which has traditionally been neglected or distorted by educational institutions. Additionally, this course of study strives to introduce an Afro-centric perspective, including phenomena related to the civilisation. Co-ordinate to Robert Harris Jr, an emeritus professor of history at the Africana Studies Enquiry Center at Cornell, in that location have been four stages in the development of Africana studies: from the 1890s until the Second World War, numerous organizations developed to clarify the culture and history of African peoples. In the second phase, the focus turned to African Americans. In the third stage, a bevy of newly conceived academic programs were established as Blackness studies.^[31]

In the United States, the 1960s is rightfully known every bit the "Turbulent Sixties." During this fourth dimension flow, the nation experienced great social unrest, as residents challenged the social club in radical ways. Many movements took place in the U.s.a. during this time period, including women's rights movement, labor rights movement, and the civil rights move.^[32]

The students at the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) were witnesses to the Civil Rights Movement, and by 1964, they were thrust into activism.^[33] On October ane, 1964, Jack Weinberg, a former graduate student, was sitting at a table where the Congress of Racial Equality (Core) was distributing literature encouraging students to protest against institutional racism. Police force asked Weinberg to produce his ID to confirm that he was a pupil, but he refused to practise so and was, therefore, arrested. In support of Weinberg, 3,000 students surrounded the police vehicle, and even used the car equally a podium, from where, they spoke nigh their right to engage in political protestation on campus.^[34] This impromptu demonstration was the showtime of many protests, culminating in the institutionalization of Blackness studies.

Ii months later on, students at UC Berkeley organized a sit-in at the Sproul Hall Assistants building to protest an unfair rule that prohibited all political clubs from fundraising, excluding the democrat and republican clubs.^[33] Police arrested 800 students. Students formed a "freedom of spoken language movement" and Mario Savio became its poetic leader, stating that "freedom of spoken language was something that represents the very dignity of what a human is."^[34] The Students for a Autonomous Society (SDS), a well-continued and organized social club, hosted a conference entitled "Black Power and its Challenges."^[33] Black leaders, who were directly tied to so ongoing civil rights movements, spoke to a predominantly white audience about their respective goals and challenges. These leaders included Stokely Carmichael of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and James Bevel of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).

Educational conferences, similar that of the SDS, forced the university to take some measures to correct the most obvious racial outcome on campus—the thin blackness student population.^[35] In 1966, the school held its first official racial and ethnic survey, in which information technology was discovered that the "American Negro" represented one.02% of the university population.^[36] In 1968, the university instituted its Educational Opportunity Program (EOP), facilitated the increased minority pupil enrollment, and offered financial assistance to minority students with high potential.^[35] By 1970, there were 1,400 EOP students. As the minority student population increased, tension between activists clubs and minorities rose because minorities wanted the reigns of the motion that afflicted them direct. I student asserted that it was "backward to educate white people well-nigh Black Power when many black people are notwithstanding uneducated on the thing.^[37] "The members of the Afro-American Pupil Union (AASU) proposed an academic section called "Black Studies" in April 1968.^[33] "Nosotros demand a program of 'Black Studies', a program that will exist of and for blackness people. Nosotros demand to be educated realistically and that no grade of education which attempts to lie to the states, or otherwise mis-educate us will exist accepted."^[38]

AASU members asserted: "The immature people of America are the inheritors of what is undoubtedly one of the most challenging, and threatening set of social circumstances that has ever fallen upon a generation of immature people in history."^[38] Everyone learns differently and didactics only 1 manner is a cause for students to non want to learn, which somewhen leads to dropping out. All students have their specialties, but teachers don't utilize that to help them in their learning community. Instead, they use a wide way of didactics just to go the data out.^[39] AASU used these claims to gain basis on their proposal to create a Black studies section. Nathan Hare, a sociology professor at San Francisco Land University, created what was known every bit the "A Conceptual Proposal for Blackness Studies" and AASU used Hare'southward framework to create a gear up of criteria.^[twoscore] A Black studies program was implemented by the UC Berkeley administration on January 13, 1969. In 1969, St. Clair Drake was named the get-go chair of the degree granting, Plan in African and Afro-American Studies at Stanford University.^[41] Many Black studies programs and departments and programs around the nation were created in subsequent years.^{[ citation needed ]}

At University of California, Santa Barbara, similarly, student activism led to the establishment of a Black studies section, amidst great targeting and bigotry of student leaders of color on the Academy of California campuses. In the Autumn season of 1968, black students from UCSB joined the national civil rights motion to cease racial segregation and exclusion of Black history and studies from college campuses. Triggered by the insensitivity of the administration and full general campus life, they occupied Due north Hall and presented the administration with a set of demands. Such efforts led to the eventual creation of the Black studies department and the Center for Black Studies.^[42]

Similar activism was happening outside of California. At Yale University, a committee, headed past political scientist, Robert Dahl, recommended establishing an undergraduate major in African-American culture, one of the first of such at an American academy.^[43]

When Ernie Davis, who was from Syracuse University, became the first African American to win the Heisman Trophy in higher football, it renewed debates virtually race on college campuses in the country. Inspired by the Davis win, ceremonious rights movement, and nationwide student activism, in 1969, black and white students, led past the Educatee African American Society (SAS), at Syracuse University, marched in front of the building at Newhouse and demanded for Blackness studies to exist taught at Syracuse.^[44] Information technology existed every bit an contained, underfunded not-degree offering program from 1971 until 1979.^[45] In 1979, the program became the Department of African American Studies, offering degrees inside the College of Arts and Sciences.^[45]

Dissimilar the other stages, Blackness studies grew out of mass rebellions of blackness college students and faculty in search of a scholarship of change. The fourth stage, the new name "Africana studies" involved a theoretical elaboration of the field of study of Black studies co-ordinate to African cultural reclamation and disparate tenets in the historical and cultural problems of Africanity inside a professorial estimation of the interactions between these fields and college administrations.^[31]

Thus, Africana studies reflected the mellowing and institutionalization of the Black studies motility in the course of its integration into the mainstream bookish curriculum. Black studies and Africana studies differ primarily in that Africana studies focuses on Africanity and the historical and cultural bug of Africa and its descendants, while Blackness studies was designed to bargain with the uplift and evolution of the black (African-American) community in relationship to educational activity and its "relevance" to the black community. The adaptation of the term, "Africana studies", appears to have derived from the encyclopedic work of W. E. B. Du Bois and Carter G. Woodson. James Turner, who was recruited from graduate school at Northwestern on the heels of the student rebellions of 1969, kickoff used the term to depict a global approach to Blackness studies and name the "Africana Studies and Research Heart" at Cornell, where he acted as the founding director.^[46]

Studia Africana, subtitled "An International Journal of Africana Studies", was published by the Department for African American Studies at the University of Cincinnati in a unmarried upshot in 1977 (an unrelated journal called Studia Africana is published by the Centro de Estudios Africanos, in Barcelona, since 1990). The International Journal of Africana Studies (ISSN 1056-8689) has been actualization since 1992, published by the National Council for Black Studies.

Africana philosophy is a part of and adult within the field of Africana studies.^{[47] [48]}

In 1988 and 1990, publications on African-American studies were funded past the Ford Foundation, and the African-American academics who produced the publications used traditional disciplinary orthodoxies, from outside of African-American studies, to clarify and evaluate the boundaries, structure, and legitimacy of African-American studies.^[49] To the detriment of the field, an abundance of research on African American studies has been adult by academics who are not within the bailiwick of African American studies.^[49] Rather, the academics, and the scholarship they have produced about African American studies, has been characterized as bearing an "Aryan hegemonic worldview."^[49] Due to a staffing shortage in the field of African American studies, academics in the field, who are trained in traditional fields, carry with them presumptions of the primacy of their field of training's viewpoints, which tends to result in the marginalization of the African phenomena that are the subjects of study and even the field of African American studies at-large.^[49] Consequently, matters of development of theory equally well every bit the development of historical and African consciousness oftentimes go overlooked.^[49] Every bit the focus of African American studies is the study of the African diaspora and Africa, including the problems of the African diaspora and Africa, this makes the theory of Afrocentricity increasingly relevant.^[49]

The National Council for Black Studies has too recognized the problem of academics, who have been trained in fields such as instruction, economics, history, philosophy, political science, psychology, and folklore – fields exterior of African American studies – and are committed to their disciplinary training, yet are not able to recognize the shortcomings of their training, equally information technology relates to the field of African American studies that they are entering into.^[49] Furthermore, such academics, who would as well recognize themselves as experts in the discipline of African American studies, would also attempt to assess the legitimacy of Africology – done and then, through assay based on critical rhetoric rather than based on pensive research.^[49]

Following the Black studies movement and Africana studies movement, Molefi Kete Asante identifies the Africological movement as a subsequent bookish movement.^[50] Asante authored the book, Afrocentricity, in 1980.^[50] Within the book, Asante used the term, "Afrology," equally the proper name for the interdisciplinary field of Black studies and defined it equally "the Afrocentric study of African phenomena."^[50] Later, Winston Van Horne changed Asante's use of the term "Afrology" to "Africology."^[50] Asante then went on to use his before definition for "Afrology" as the definition for his newly adopted term, "Africology."^[50] Systematic Africology,^{[49] [1]} which is a inquiry method in the field of Black studies that was developed by Asante,^[ane] utilizes the theory of Afrocentricity to analyze and evaluate African phenomena.^[49] In an effort to shift Blackness studies away from its interdisciplinary status toward disciplinary condition, Asante recommended that Afrocentricity should be the meta-epitome for Blackness studies and that the new name for Black studies should be Africology; this is intended to shift Black studies away from having a "topical definition" of studying African peoples, which is shared with other disciplines, toward having a "perspectival definition" that is unique in how African peoples are studied – that is, the study of African peoples, through a centered perspective, which is rooted in and derives from the cultures and experiences of African peoples.^[51] Past doing so, as Ama Mazama indicates, this should increase how relevant Blackness studies is and strengthen its disciplinary presence.^[51]

South America [edit]

Argentina [edit]

Since the 1980s, Afro-Argentine studies has undergone renewed growth.^[52]

Brazil [edit]

In 1980, Abdias Nascimento gave a presentation in Panama of his scholarship on Kilombismo at the 2nd Congress of Black Civilization in the Americas.^[8] His scholarship on Kilombismo detailed how the economic and political affairs of Africans throughout the Americas contributed to how they socially organized themselves.^[53] After, Nascimento went back to Brazil and began institutionalization of Africana studies in 1981.^[8] While at the Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, Nascimento developed the Afro-Brazilian Studies and Research Institute (IPEAFRO).^[8] A course for professors was provided by IPEAFRO between 1985 and 1995.^[viii]

Chile [edit]

From the 1920s to the 1950s, publications that included the presence of Afro-Chileans were non systematized, and, from the 1960s to the 1980s, publications continued to group Afro-Chileans with other groups.^[54] Since the 2000s, there has been increasing systematization and a more than formal development of Afro-Chilean studies, along with a greater focus on Afro-Chileans and the recovery of Afro-Chilean cultural heritage.^[54]

Colombia [edit]

Scholars, such as Rogerio Velásquez, Aquiles Escalante, José Rafael Arboleda, and Thomas Price, were forerunners in the development of Afro-Colombian studies in the 1940s and 1950s.^[55] In the 1960s, every bit social science programs became incorporated into university institutions, contributions from anthropologists and social scientists added to its emergence.^[55] Following the promulgation of the Colombian Constitution, particularly Article 55, in 1991,^[55] Police 70 in 1993,^{[55] [10] [11]} and Prescript 804 by the Ministry of Education in 1995,^{[10] [eleven]} the elements for Afro-Colombian studies began to come together,^[55] and celebrated discrimination of Afro-Colombians was able to begin being addressed, with the development of national educational content almost Afro-Colombians and Africa.^{[56] [ten] [eleven]} At the University Urban center of Bogotá, of the National University of Republic of colombia, the Afro-Colombian Studies Group developed and established a training programme in Afro-Colombian studies for primary and secondary school teachers.^[56] In February 2002, a standing education diploma program in Afro-Colombian studies was developed and began to exist offered at the University of Cauca in Belalcázar, Caldas.^{[57] [58] [59]} At the Pontifical Xavierian Academy, there is a master's caste program in Afro-Colombian studies.^{[60] [61]} At that place is too a study abroad program for Afro-Colombian students and African-American students existing between the Afro-Colombian studies programme at the Pontifical Xavierian University in Colombia and African-American studies programs at historically blackness colleges and universities in the United States.^[61]

Ecuador [edit]

Afro-Ecuadorians initiated the development of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies in the belatedly 1970s, which served as a means of organizing academic questions relating to Afro-Ecuadorian identity and history.^[12] Though information technology dissolved in the early 1980s, by the 1990s, organizations that followed in the example of the Heart of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies ushered in the development of the Afro-Ecuadorian Etnoeducación program at the National Loftier School, in Chota Valley, Republic of ecuador, and a master'southward degree program in Afro-Andean Studies at the Simón Bolívar Andean University (UASB), in Quito, Ecuador.^[12] With the promulgation of Article 84 of the 1998 Constitution of Ecuador, gave formal recognition was given to Afro-Ecuadorian Etnoeducación.^[12] Juan Garcia, who was ane of the founders of the Middle of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies, is a leading scholar in Afro-Ecuadorian studies and has contributed considerably to the evolution of the programs in Chota Valley and Quito.^[12]

Peru [edit]

While the presence of Afro-Peruvian studies may non be stiff in Peru,^{[10] [eleven]} the body of scholarship is undergoing growth.^[62] At that place have been efforts to organize the elements of Afro-Peruvian studies in Peru, such as by LUNDU, which organized an international conference for Afro-Peruvian studies in Peru^[63] on November 13, 2009.^[64] During this LUNDU-organized conference, Luis Rocca, who co-founded the National Afro-Peruvian Museum, and is as well a historian, presented on his enquiry regarding Afro-Peruvians.^[63] A university student group focused on Afro-Peruvian studies was too created near San Juan de Lurigancho, Lima, Peru.^[65] Additionally, there has been some scholarship in Afro-Peruvian studies developed in the United States^[66] and a panel on Afro-Peruvian studies at a conference hosted on December xi, 2019 by the Hutchins Middle for African and African American Inquiry in the United States.^[67]

Uruguay [edit]

Since 1996, the corporeality of scholarship of Afro-Uruguayan studies has increased as a outcome of increased global focus on Afro-Latin American studies.^[68]

Venezuela [edit]

The curriculum for Afro-Venezuelan studies was developed at Universidad Politécnica Territorial de Barlovento Argelia Laya (UPTBAL), in Higuerote, Barlovento, past Alejandro Correa.^[xiii] In 2006, Afro-Epistemology and African Culture were formally developed as the initial courses for students in this curriculum.^[thirteen]

Research methods [edit]

African Cocky-Consciousness [edit]

Kobi K. G. Kambon adult a research method and psychological framework, known every bit African Self-Consciousness, which analyzes u.s.a. and changes of the African mind.^[1]

Africana Womanism [edit]

Delores P. Aldridge adult a research method, which analyzes from the viewpoint of blackness women, known as Africana Womanism.^[ane] Rather than the importance of the individual (due east.thousand., needs, wants) being considered greater than the family unit unit, the importance of the family unit is regarded as greater than the private.^[1]

Afrocentricity [edit]

Afrocentricity is an academic theory and approach to scholarship that seeks to eye the experiences and peoples of Africa and the African diaspora within their own historical, cultural, and sociological contexts.^{[69] [70] [71] [72]} First developed every bit a systematized methodology by Molefi Kete Asante in 1980, he drew inspiration from a number of African and African diaspora intellectuals including Cheikh Anta Diop, George James, Harold Cruse, Ida B. Wells, Langston Hughes, Malcolm Ten, Marcus Garvey, and W. E. B. Du Bois.^[69] The Temple Circle,^{[73] [74]} also known as the Temple School of Thought,^[74] Temple Circle of Afrocentricity,^[75] or Temple School of Afrocentricity,^[76] was an early on group of Africologists during the late 1980s and early 1990s that helped to further develop Afrocentricity, which is based on concepts of agency, centeredness, location, and orientation.^[73]

Black Male Studies (BMS) [edit]

Black studies scholars take often explored the unique experiences of black boys/men; this line of research dates back to the analyses of black male person training done by W.E.B. Du Bois in his volume, The Souls of Black Folk (1903). Though Black studies, as its own discipline, has been in decline, its perpetuation as a sub-discipline in various social science fields (due east.thou., pedagogy, sociology, cultural anthropology, urban studies) has risen. This ascent has coincided with the emergence of men's studies (besides referred to as masculinity studies). Since the early on 1980s, in that location has been an increasing interest in black males among scholars and policy makers, which has resulted in a marked rise in the sub-discipline, Black Male studies. At that place has been development of numerous books, inquiry articles, conferences,^[77] foundations,^[78] research centers^{[79] [80]} and institutes,^[81] academic journals, initiatives,^{[82] [83] [84]} and scholarly collectives^{[85] [ total commendation needed ]} that emphasize or focus entirely on the status of blackness boys and men in club.

Blues Culture [edit]

James B. Stewart developed the enquiry method and methodological framework, known every bit Blues Culture, which examines the traits (e.g., versatility, vibration) of Africana culture utilizing diverse means from an assortment of disciplines (e.g., economic science, history, folklore).^[1]

Double Consciousness [edit]

W. East. B. DuBois adult the research method and conceptual framework, known as Double Consciousness, to analyze how Africana people (and phenomena) be in a dual racialized (blackness-white) globe and subsequently develop a dual consciousness.^[1] Rather than succumb to diverse forms of external pressure (e.thousand., absorption, harassment, prejudice, racism, sexism, surveillance), Africana people notice how to steer through them.^[1]

Four Basic Tasks of the Black Studies Scholar [edit]

James Turner developed the enquiry method and social scientific framework, known every bit Four Basic Tasks of the Black Studies Scholar, which investigates the problems that impact the experiences of Africana peoples and addresses four related criteria (east.thou., defend, disseminate, generate, preserve new knowledge) utilizing diverse means of examination from an assortment of disciplines (due east.g., conceptual history, economics, political science, sociology).^[ane]

Interpretative Assay [edit]

Charles H. Wesley developed the enquiry method of Interpretative Analysis, which utilizes a structural or cultural arrangement to gather, analyze, and interpret data.^[i]

Kawaida Theory [edit]

Maulana Karenga drew from the concept of Nguzo Saba to develop his research method, known as Kawaida Theory.^[1] Seven factors (east.m., creative production, ethos, history, organized religion, economic system, political arrangement, social organization) are utilized to examine the Africana experience, which is gear up inside a Pan-Africanist context.^[one]

Miseducation of the Negro [edit]

Carter M. Woodson developed the research method of and conceptual framework for the Miseducation of the Negro, which analyzes and assesses the history and culture of Africana people, and notates their notable loss of such is due to Africana people being decentered from their own celebrated and cultural contexts.^[1]

Nigrescence [edit]

William Eastward. Cross Jr. developed the research method, known equally Nigrescence, as a psychological framework; with the framework, he analyzes Africana civilisation and the behavioral dimensions of its psycho-adaptive traits also as analyzes a timeline of Black culture (which is composed of 5 steps).^[1]

Optimal Worldview of Psychology [edit]

Linda Meyers adult the research method, known as the Optimal Worldview of Psychology, which utilizes investigates the African mind through a cultural framework (e.g., surface-level structure of civilization, deep structure of culture); its sub-optimal viewpoint highlights the demerits of an African mind that has an assimilated mentality and its optimal viewpoint corresponds with an African listen that has an Africana mentality.^[1]

Paradigm of Unity [edit]

Abdul Alkalimat developed the inquiry method known as the Epitome of Unity, which has a considerable focus on relationships between social classes, via Marxist analysis, and utilizes gender as a determining factor likewise as utilizes an undefined notion of Afrocentricity.^{[1] [86]}

[edit]

Michael Frisch developed the research method, known every bit Shared Authority, to investigate orature, which recognizes the personhood (e.g., subject field, agency) and experiences of the Africana individual.^[ane] Through this methodological recognition, information that may non have been captured in prior publications is able to be optimally acquired.^[1]

[edit]

Winston Van Horn developed a research method and methodological framework (composed of three steps), known as Social Legitimacy, which analyzes the experiences of Africana peoples and Africana phenomena in their political and sociological contexts.^[1]

2 Cradle Theory [edit]

Cheikh Anta Diop drew from anthropology, archaeology, history, and sociology to develop a enquiry method and cultural metric, known equally Two Cradle Theory, to assess the differences between African and European cultures – betwixt what are characterized and viewed as the southern cradle and the northern cradle.^[i]

Ujimaa [edit]

James L. Conyers, Jr. drew from the concept of Nguzo Saba to develop the research method known as Ujimaa; the methodological framework draws from philosophy, sociology, and conceptual history, with the understanding that civilisation is utilized to analyze and appraise Pan-Africanist phenomena from around the earth, and is utilized to analyze social responsibility and the work of the collective.^[1]

Recent challenges and criticisms [edit]

1 of the major setbacks with Blackness studies programs or departments is that at that place is a lack of financial resources available to students and faculty.^[87] Many universities and colleges around the United States provided Black studies programs with pocket-sized budgets and, therefore, it is difficult for the department to purchase materials and rent staff. Due to the upkeep allocated to Blackness studies being express, some faculty are jointly appointed, therefore, causing faculty to leave their home disciplines to teach a discipline with which they may not be familiar. Budgetary issues brand it difficult for Black studies programs and departments to part and to promote themselves.^[88]

Racism, perpetrated by many administrators, is alleged to hinder the institutionalization of Black studies at major universities.^[87] As with the case of UC Berkeley, most of the Black studies programs across the state were instituted because of the urging and demanding of blackness students to create the plan. In many instances, black students also chosen for the increased enrollment of black students and fiscal assistance to these students.^[87] Also seen in the instance of UC Berkeley is the abiding demand to have such a program, but identify the power of control in the easily of black people. The idea was that Blackness studies could not exist "realistic" if information technology were taught by someone who was not accustomed to the black feel. On many campuses, directors of Black studies accept picayune to no autonomy—they practice not accept the power to hire or grant tenure to faculty. On many campuses, an overall lack of respect for the discipline has caused instability for the students and for the plan.

In the past thirty years, there has been a steady decline of Black studies scholars.^[87]

Universities and colleges with Black studies departments, programs, and courses [edit]

Brazil

• Pontifical Catholic Academy of São Paulo^[8]

Canada

• Brock University^[89]
• Concordia Academy^[ninety]
• Dalhousie Academy^{[91] [9]}
• Queen's Academy^[92]
• York University^[93]

Caribbean

• University of the Virgin Islands
• Academy of the Westward Indies^[7]

Colombia

• National University of Republic of colombia^[56]
• Pontifical Xavierian University^{[60] [61]}
• University of Cauca^[57]

Ecuador

• Simón Bolívar Andean University^[12]

United Kingdom

• Birmingham City University^{[94] [29]}

United states of america

• American Academy
• Amherst Higher
• Baruch College
• Brandeis University
• Brown University
• California State University, Dominguez Hills
• California State University, Fullerton
• California State Academy, Northridge
• Carleton Higher
• Cleveland State University
• College of William and Mary
• Columbia University
• Dartmouth Higher
• Davidson College
• Dominican Academy
• Duke University^[95]
• Eastern Kentucky University
• Eastern Michigan Academy^[96]
• Emory Academy
• Fordham University
• Georgetown University
• Georgia State University
• Guilford College
• Indiana University
• Oberlin Higher^[97]
• Ohio Country Academy
• Loyola Marymount University
• Luther College
• Middle Tennessee Land University
• Mount Holyoke College
• Nassau Community College
• Pennsylvania State University^[98]
• Portland State Academy^[99]
• Princeton University
• Purdue Academy
• San Jose State University^[100]
• Syracuse Academy
• Temple University
• The College of New Jersey
• Towson Academy
• Tufts University
• University at Albany^[101]
• Academy of Arizona
• Academy of Arkansas
• University at Buffalo
• University of California, Berkeley
• University of California, Davis
• University of California, Irvine^[102]
• Academy of California, Los Angeles
• Academy of California, San Diego
• University of California, Santa Barbara
• Academy of Florida
• Academy of Houston
• Academy of Kansas
• University of Louisville
• Academy of Massachusetts, Amherst
• Academy of Michigan
• University of Montana
• University of Nebraska at Omaha
• University of Due north Carolina at Chapel Colina^[103]
• University of North Carolina at Charlotte^[104]
• Academy of North Carolina at Greensboro^[105]
• University of North Texas
• University of Oklahoma
• University of Oregon
• University of Pennsylvania
• University of Puget Sound
• University of Rochester
• University of Southward Carolina
• University of Texas at Arlington
• Academy of Texas at Austin
• University of Virginia
• Academy of Wisconsin
• Valdosta State University
• Vassar College
• Virginia Commonwealth Academy
• Washington Academy in St. Louis
• Western Illinois Academy
• Wesleyan Academy
• Wright Land University
• Yale University

Venezuela

• Universidad Politécnica Territorial de Barlovento Argelia Laya^[13]

Universities with Ph.D. programs in Black studies [edit]

Prominent academics in Black studies [edit]

Scholarly and academic journals [edit]

• African American Review
• Africana [1] – Journal of Ideas on Africa and the Diaspora
• Africana Online: Journal of the Africana Center for Cultural Literacy and Inquiry
• Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies [2] (since 1987)
• Afro-Americans in New York Life and History [3] (since 1976)
• The Blackness Scholar (since 1969)
• Callaloo
• Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography [4] – coverage includes any aspect of Africa, its peoples, their homes, cities, towns, districts, states, countries, regions, including social, economic sustainable development, creative literature, the arts, and the Diaspora.
• The Griot: The Journal of African American Studies [5]
• International Journal of Africana Studies [6] – designed to interrogate and analyze the lived experiences of Africana people.
• The Periodical of African Civilizations (since 1979)
• Journal of African American History
• Journal of African American Males in Pedagogy (JAAME) [7]
• Journal of Blackness Studies
• Journal of Negro Instruction
• Journal of Negro History
• Western Periodical of Blackness Studies [8]
• Negro Digest
• Negro Educational Review [ix]
• Negro History Bulletin
• Nka: Periodical of Contemporary African Art [10] – focuses on publishing critical work that examines the newly developing field of contemporary African and African Diaspora art within the modernist and postmodernist feel, thereby contributing to the intellectual dialogue on globe fine art and the discourse on internationalism and multiculturalism in the arts.
• Phylon
• Race & Class
• Souls: A Critical Journal of Blackness Politics, Culture, and Society [11]
• Transition Magazine

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j chiliad fifty 1000 north o p q r s t u v} Conyers, Jr., James 50. (Oct 15, 2018). "Research Methods In Africana Studies". Africana Methodology: A Social Study of Research, Triangulation and Meta-theory. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 201–204. ISBN9781527519404.
2. ^ Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo (2007). The Early Black History Motility, Carter M. Woodson, and Lorenzo Johnston Greene. Academy of Illinois Printing. ISBN978-0-252-07435-6.
3. ^ Kelly, Jason (November–December 2010). "Lorenzo Dow Turner, PhD'26". The University of Chicago® Mag. Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect (1949) ... was considered not only the defining work of Gullah language and civilization merely also the beginning of a new field, Black studies. 'Until then it was pretty much thought that all of the African cognition and everything had been erased by slavery. Turner showed that was non true,' [curator Alcione] Amos says. 'He was a pioneer. He was the beginning one to make the connections between African Americans and their African past.
4. ^ Cotter, Kingdom of the netherlands (September two, 2010). "A Language Explorer Who Heard Echoes of Africa". The New York Times. Turner published 'Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect,' a volume that would help pave the way for the field of African-American studies in the 1960s.
5. ^ ^{a b} Andrews, Kehinde (December 2020). "Black, Empire and migration: How Black Studies transforms the curriculum". Expanse. 52 (four): 701–707. doi:10.1111/area.12528. S2CID 151178582.
6. ^ ^{a b} Andrews, Kehinde (September one, 2018). "The Black Studies Movement in Great britain: Becoming an Establishment, Non Institutionalised". In Arday, Jason; Mirza, Heidi Safia (eds.). Dismantling Race in Higher Education. Springer International Publishing. pp. 271–287. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60261-5_15. ISBN9783319602615. S2CID 158719176.
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Farther reading [edit]

• Alkalimat, Abdul (2021). The History of Blackness Studies. London: Pluto Press. ISBN9780745344225.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_studies

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